Militarian History of the Mongolian Empire
- Breanna Vinson
- Jan 23
- 7 min read
February 23, 2023
Genghis Khan was the chief of the Mongol Empire. A conqueror known for violent methods and an army of fearsome warriors. Such power has been proven throughout history in several instances. Even the famous Great Wall of China was unable to stop his unmerciful conquest. His reign was so significant that his initial name of Temujin was changed to Genghis Khan after obtaining mastery of almost all of Mongolia. This name was given to him to mark his position of great power. This name roughly translates to “precious warrior lord.”[1]
Not only does this make the mark of a powerful leader, but a formidable army as well. There is some confusion surrounding this name however, as some texts refer to him with the spelling of Chinggis Khan. The spelling used in this writing is standard for the West.[2] Like all great things, this army was not formed overnight. Looking into the formation of the empire and the strategies that made it so successful will provide insight into this topic. In the 12th century, the Mongol empire was unmatched for its time. A substantial reason for this great power is the violent means followed. Such means will be explored in addition to Khan’s influence as a leader. As there is great significance regarding the armada, it will be heavily focused on through the lens of military history.
Although it may be hard to believe, Mongolia was not always one with a powerful army. It did not start as the empire Genghis Khan came to rule. These beginnings consisted of pastoral nomads that would migrate between seasonal pastures to ensure flocks would not overgraze on land. These flocks would mainly be of sheep, a source of warmth for their wool and food for their meat. In addition, sheep would produce leather, giving the nomads an array of resources from one animal. A slightly lower percentage of the flock would be goats, more reliable when droughts came. All of the same materials sheep provided were provided by these goats, save for meat which was replaced by milk instead. Other animals were kept in lower quantities, consisting of oxen, yak, Bactrian camels, and horses, which became a massive part of the military and its expansion.[3] At this time, horses were of great importance, yet it was a less defined one than is seen in times of battle. Bows with arrows started as weapons to hunt with, shot from the back of a moving horse.4 Mastering the use of such a weapon no doubt aided future combat.
The push that began the rise of Mongolia’s empire consisted of one group’s domination over a majority of the plateau. Defense was required to achieve such a feat, as without it, there would not be this kind of control.3 As Mongolia was not yet a unified force, there were various clans in the area. Khan, known at this time only by his birth name of Temujin, hailed from the Borjigin clan. Over time, competition began to pop up, creating a more significant land divide and threatening the nearby plateau. This competition comprised of the Chinese to the south and tribes such as Tatar to the northeast. The Tatar became a significant enemy of the Borjigin early on. This began with the death of Temujin’s father, Yesugei, who was killed by Tatar. It was customary for the eldest son to rise to power; however, in this case, Temujin was around the age of ten, and the people refused to take him as a leader. Not only was he rejected, but this resulted in the exile of him, his mother, and his brothers.[4] Normally this would be a death sentence, but Temujin overcame this difficulty, surviving along with his remaining family. Denied the title he was meant to have, he vowed to regain it.
Foundations for the change in military structure began as early as 1206 due to Khan's experience in previous battles. The experience caused a core aspect to be established. Khan vowed to value unswerving loyalty and proven skills above all else when deciding on commanders.[5] With commanders having to prove themselves, bias did not come into play the same way choosing relatives first would. In addition, Khan was aware of what strength his commanders had due to seeing them firsthand. Going so far as to have one of his sons be accompanied by one of these commanders when in charge of expedition, there was no room to risk incompetence. Similarly, both men were aware of this arrangement to prevent any complications it might cause.5
Organization was another significant factor in the armada's success. Warriors were divided into groups of various sizes, allowing for greater efficiency. These groups were of ten, one hundred, one thousand, and an even larger group introduced by Khan of ten thousand. These units often consisted of members from various tribes and clans. It not only created a larger sense of unity, but it also made for a more effective armada. When preparing for an invasion, scouting the target was of utmost importance to Khan. This tactic allowed for extensive preparation, typically done with the reference of a map created for the targeted area. Rather than be discreet, it was not uncommon for the scout to create stories that elevated the armada's already violent and numerous factors. It was common for the number of warriors to be exaggerated as well, giving the impression of an infinite opposition [6]
Having many organized groups came with many advantages, one of which was to “Open the End.”[7] Doing this meant smaller groups would circle an opposition, each group closes together enough to prevent escape save for one spot. As the army on horseback tightened this circle, the gap intentionally left would become a means of “escape.” Taking this path, however, would result in the shooting down of the one retreating. Such is done by positioning men in this area to cut down an otherwise free member of opposition.7
These factors are undoubtedly a part of the armada's reputation for being such a brutal and vast force. These stories were taken at face value, undoubtedly planting a seed of fear and helplessness in the victims. This could have caused more harm than good if not for the empire's strength. The target was able to better prepare for the attack, viewing it as immensely powerful and thus more on guard. On the contrary, this would also result in surrender, giving the empire an easy win. These stories, however, are not the only reason the Mongols had such a reputation. It is even unneeded to dramatize tactics due to their sheer nature. With the armada being considered “Soldiers of Hell”7 by many religious peoples, it begs the question of what they did to gain such a title.
Violent actions were carried out with a purpose, despite appearing unnecessarily brutal. In some ways, this is true, as fear can be instilled in more ways than these. One of the tactics that fall under this reasoning is the practice of filling moats with corpses of inhabitants from neighboring country-sides or emptying a city to slaughter the inhabitants.8 When killing surviving enemies there was a restriction on some. While it did not matter if they were a boy or girl, the age did matter. Children were only to be killed if they were older; otherwise, they were placed throughout Khan’s own people to remove their previous tribal identity.[8]
These are done to instill fear while adding to the aspect of bloodlust that the Mongol empire is well known for. Reasons for killings are more apparent in different scenarios. A common reason was to prevent insubordination. Doing so could involve the massacre of areas deemed troublesome or even chasing a fleeing opponent across vast distances to prevent the regrouping and formation of another attack.[9] Taking drastic measures gave less room for defeat, giving the Mongols an upper hand that, arguably, was there to begin with and was only strengthened.
While this is a large part of the armada’s success, it alone did not create such a powerful force. The variety and adaptability of tactics used in battle made for swift decision-making, giving more control to the Mongols as it was possible for them to turn the tides of battle. A commonly used way of doing such was to enact feigned retreat. While it was not a new tactic, it was mastered by the Mongols who made full use of the effect it can have. As the name suggests, it involved retreating from the opposition, but instead of being a genuine surrender, it was a way to regroup. Confusing the opposition into believing they had won, it put them in a vulnerable position where they did not anticipate attacks of any kind.[10]
Other tactics included excessive use of the bow, accompanied by a vast barrage of arrows. Not only would Mongols fire arrow storms from a great distance of two hundred to three hundred yards away, but these shots were accurate at hitting in a certain predetermined area referred to as the “killing zone.”10 For a more mobile attack, a strategy consisted of firing arrow storms and then retreating to be next in a long line of armed soldiers on horseback. The front of this line could be forty to fifty meters away from the enemy line. As constant movement occurred, there was little time between each firing of arrows. Additionally, with sixty arrows equipped to each one of the twenty men in a line, such an attack could last up to or possibly exceeding an hour. Not only were there large lines, but multiple lines were set up, allowing for an average of eighty participants.[11]
Genghis Khan was no ordinary leader, he commanded one of the most powerful empires history has ever seen. This came down to many factors, although some were clearly more prominent than others. From violent means to adaptability, Khan’s armada had many ways to overwhelm their targets. This aided not only the competency of commanders but by the way troops were organized. Having more manageable groups meant no unnecessarily large parties for menial tasks and backup for those sent to deal with these smaller tasks. One can take inspiration from the tactics Khan used; although they would have to be adapted for these modern times, there is no doubt they have allowed for great success. Although if one does decide to do this, it would be best to leave out the violent methods. There are likely many instances of this where flexible tactics are focused on as a priority yet specifics would undoubtably vary.
[1] World Almanac Education Group Inc. Genghis Khan. Funk & Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia. 2020. EBSCO.
[2] May, Timothy, Genghis Khan Secrets of Success, Vol. 24, no. 5 pp. 42–49, Military History, 2007, EBSCO.
[5] Lococo, Paul, Genghis Khan: History’s Greatest Empire Builder, Vol. 1st ed. Potomac Books, 2008, EBSCO.
[6] May, 1.
[7] May, 1.
[8] Wilmore, 2.
[9] Wilmore, 2.
[10] May, 1.
[11] May, 1.
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